APEC Chapter 13

Chapter 13 discusses the Protestant Reformation and its effects on society and politics.

Northern Renaissance Humanism
Like their Italian counterparts, Northern humanists, also called Christian humanists, studied classical antiquity, as well as early Christianity. They believed that education was important.

Desiderius Erasmus, the author of The Praise of Folly and Handbook of the Christian Knight, was an influential Christian humanist that believed that Christianity should be a way of life rather than a formal ceremonial practice. He wished to reform the Church, not break with it.

Thomas More was Lord Chancellor, a well educated scholar. He wrote Utopia, which described a place in the middle of nowhere whose society was perfect. It criticized religious and political problems in England at the time.

Church Prior to the Reformation
There was excessive corruption in the Catholic Church prior to the Reformation. To gain power, clergy practiced pluralism, holding multiple offices at once. This led to absenteeism, where powerful clergy members failed to fulfill all their duties. To regular citizens, salvation seemed mechanical, especially with the sale of indulgences.

Luther
Martin Luther was educated at the University of Erfurt, and then became a monk. In his study of theology, Luther became dubious of the Church's guarantee of salvation, instead believing that humans do not deserve salvation and are awarded it by God's grace. Thus, he believed in salvation by faith alone. He was also angry at the sale of indulgences, guarantees of less time in purgatory, by Leo X for the reconstruction of St. Peter's Basilica.

He posted the 95 Theses on the Church of Wittenberg, and reaffirmed his beliefs criticizing the entirety of the Church at the Leipzig debate with Eck. He was summoned before Charles V at the Diet of Worms, and was declared an outlaw by the city's namesake Edict.

Luther than hid under the protection of Frederick the Elector of Saxony. His religion spread quickly and Luther gained support of German princes, even opposing commoners in the Peasant's War.

Luther denied transubstantiation, the literal transformation of the Eucharist at communion. Scripture was emphasized, as was universal priesthood. German services replaced the previously Latin Mass.

German Politics
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, faced internal issues of Protestantism as well as threats from the Valois king of France, Ottoman Turks, as well as the papacy. He fought with Francis I over the Low Countries in the Hapsburg-Valois Wars, and Ottomans pushed far into Hungary.

Germany was very fragmented and not centralized. A Lutheran League of princes and cities known as the Schmalkaldic League was formed and fought their namesake wars against Charles V. Eventually, the emperor gave up and became a monk.

Spread of Protestantism
The Union of Kalmar brought Norway and Sweden under control of Denmark. After revolutions, Lutheranism was established firmly in Scandinavia.

Zwingli instituted reform in Switzerland, which was divided into cantons. His religion was similar to Lutheranism except that he believed that communion was only a figurative activity, and thus failed to unite with Luther.

Anabaptists believed in separation of church and state as well as adult baptism. They were persecuted by Catholics and Protestants alike, and tried but failed to establish a stronghold at Munster.

Henry VIII sought a breaking with the Church to annul his marriage with Catherine of Aragon to beget a male heir. Protestant reforms were instituted during the reign of Edward VI, but reversed under Mary.

John Calvin established a sect of Protestantism that focused on predestination. It attracted many followers including John Knox, who spread it to Scotland. The Consistory of Geneve was founded, and it enforced law.

Social Impact
Celibacy, observed by Catholic priests, was discouraged by Luther. The father remained the head of the family, although some women were educated to be able to read Scripture.

Protestants believed in educating a wider variety of people, similar to humanist education but for commoners as well as the wealthy.

Relics were abolished, as well as saints' days and much entertainment. Monasticism was removed, and of course, indulgences.

Counter-Reformation
Catholics tried to re-affirm their believes. A new revival in mysticism occured. The Jesuits, founded by Ignatius of Loyola, established schools, spread Catholicism, and fought Protestants militarily.

Paul III perceived a need for change in the Church and recognized the corruption. Paul IV strengthened the Inquisition and instituted the Index of Banned Books.

The Council of Trent tried to resolve religious differences, but ended up reaffirming Catholic beliefs. It unified the Catholic Church.

Politics
The French wars of religion were sparked by differences of religion in France. Huguenots, French Protestants, became a strong part of society, whereas the Valois rulers were Catholic. In the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, many Protestants were killed, but Henry of Navarre, a Calvinist king, was spared. He eventually converted back to Catholicism when he became and instituted the Edict of Nantes, which provided for freedom of worship.

Philip II, a Spanish king, tried to establish Spanish dominance in Europe. His armada attacked England but failed. He had much money from his New World possessions, but his wars left him largely in debt.

The Netherlands revolted against him. Largely Calvinist, the provinces were united by William of Orange to form the Union of Utrecht.

Elizabeth I ruled in England and was a supporter of Protestantism. She beheaded Mary Queen of Scots and was opposed by Puritans. A cultural renaissance was sparked in England during her reign.